Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms: Haile Selassie's Laws Outgun Uncle Sam

"And be not drunk with wine, wherein is excess; but be filled with the Spirit." Holy Bible, King James Version, Ephesians 5:18.

ALCOHOL

Many traditional Rastafarians adhere to a literal interpretation of the Nazarite Vow of the Old Testament that forbids the consumption of fermented foods including alcohol:

And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When either man or woman shall separate themselves to vow a vow of a Nazarite, to separate themselves unto the LORD: He shall separate himself from wine and strong drink, and shall drink no vinegar of wine, or vinegar of strong drink, neither shall he drink any liquor of grapes, nor eat moist grapes, or dried. All the days of his separation shall he eat nothing that is made of the vine tree, from the kernels even to the husk.¹

Yet alcohol was not forbidden by His Imperial Majesty Emperor Haile Selassie the First and he even consumed it himself. "Young persons" were, however, prohibited by law from consuming alcoholic beverages in Imperial Ethiopia.² According to Articles 167 and 181 of the 1957 Penal Code a "young person" is defined as anyone under the age of eighteen.³

Apart from Imperial Ethiopian legislation, the Emperor publicly spoke out against minors consuming alcohol as early as November 2, 1947:

The building of this Stadium calls the youth of Ethiopia to their sacred duty to preserve strength of body and quickness of mind by turning away from all that weakens the body or limits the intellect. [...] It must not be forgotten that to love sport and to safeguard the national prestige, it is indispensable to have nothing to do with alcohol and avoid all base things against which conscience speaks.⁴

Public intoxication, regardless of age, was also illegal as according to Art. 773(d) of the Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia 1957:

Art. 773. — Measures against Alcoholism.

Whosoever, apart from the cases punishable under the Penal Code:

(a) contravenes the rules or regulations concerning the manufacture of and trade in alcohol and distilled beverages; or

(b) sells, buys or consumes alcohol in a public establishment outside the lawful hours; or

(c) sells, offers, serves or allows to be served in a public place alcohol in substantial quantities to infants or young persons, persons who are irresponsible, or are manifestly drunk or dangerous; or

(d) intentionally induces another to become inebriated, inebriates another or himself in a public place or in a place open to the public or that can be viewed by the public, is punishable with fine or arrest not exceeding one month.⁵

Alcohol-induced disorder, threats or scandals were considered tortfeasance:

Art. 774. — Causing Public Scandal while drunk or intoxicated.

Whosoever, being drunk or intoxicated, causes scandal or disorder or utters threats in a pubic place, is punishable with fine not exceeding one hundred dollars or arrest not exceeding eight days without prejudice to safety.⁶

The Supreme Imperial Court used the 1951 Black's Law Dictionary 4th Edition⁷ where alcoholic beverages are defined as follows:

ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE. The term is distinguished from the term 'intoxicating liquor in that a beverage may be alcoholic in that it contains some alcohol, and yet not be intoxicating as defined in National Prohibition Act. Premier-Pabst Sales Co. v. McNutt, D.C.lnd., 17 FSupp. 708, 714. Beer. Liquor Control Commission v. McGillis, 91 Utah, 586, 65 P.2d 7136, 7741. Ethyl alcohol, within tax statute. H. O. Hurley Co. v. Martin, 267 Ky. 182, 101 S.W.2d 657, 660. It is immaterial whether the liquor is suitable or desirable for beverage purposes, if it is prohibited by law and is in fact used as a beverage. Powell v. State, 179 Md. 399, 18 A.2d 587, 590, 591. But it must be drinkable. McChristy v. State, 138 Tex.Cr.R. 26, 133 S.VV.2d 976, 977.⁸

 Alcoholic liquors are defined as:

ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS. 'Alcoholic, spirituous and malt liquors' mean intoxicating liquors which can be used as a beverage, and which, when drunk to excess, will produce intoxication. Howard v. Acme Brewing Co., 143 Ga. 1, 83 S.E. 1096,1097, Ann. Cas.1917A 91; F W. Woolworth Co. v. State, 72 OkLCr. 725, 113 P.2d 399, 403. The term includes raw alcohol. C. J. Lincoln Co. v. State, 122 Ark. 204, 183 S.W. 173, 174. Beer, ale, or wine in Selective Service Act § 12 (50 U.S.C.A § 226 note). U. S. v. Kinsel, ac., 263 F 141, 742 And lemon and vanilla extracts, made or used for beverage purposes, containing alcohol. Brandon v. State, 24 Ala.App. 289,734 So. 890, 891. But not specially denatured alcohol. M. H. McCarthy & Co. v. Doran, D.C.Mass., 43 F.2d 659, 661. See Intoxicating Liquor.⁹

The definition of alcoholism states: 

ALCOHOLISM. In medical jurisprudence, the pathological effect (as distinguished from physiological effect) of excessive indulgence in intoxicating liquors. A morbid condition resulting from the inordinate or excessive use of alcoholic beverages. Cochran v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, C.C.A.4, 78 F.2d 176, 178. It is acute when induced by excessive potations at one time or in the course of a single debauch. An attack of delirium tremens and alcoholic homicidal mania are examples of this form. It is chronic when resulting from the long-continued use of spirits in less quantities, as in the case of dipsomania.¹⁰

Black's Law Dictionary defines "intoxicated" as: "Affected by an intoxicant, under the influence of an intoxicating liquor. Taylor v. Joyce, 4 Cal.App.2d 612, 41 P.2d 967, 968."¹¹

INTOXICATING LIQUOR. Any liquor used as a beverage, and which, when so used in sufficient quantities, ordinarily or commonly produces entire or partial intoxication; any liquor intended for use as a beverage or capable of being so used, which contains alcohol, either obtained by fermentation or by the additional process of distillation, in such proportion that it will produce intoxication when imbibed in such quantities as may practically be drunk. Intoxicating Liquor Cases, 25 Kan. 767, 37 Am.Rep. 284; Com'rs v. Taylor, 21 N.Y. 173; People v. Hawley, 3 Mich. 339; State v. Oliver, 26 W.Va. 437, 53 Am.Rep. 79; Frisvold v. Leahy, 15 Cal.App.2d 752, 60 P.2d 151, 153; Worley v. Spurgeon, 38 Iowa 465. See, also, Alcoholic Liquors.¹²

 Intoxication is defined as:

INTOXICATION. The state of being poisoned; the condition produced by the administration or introduction into the human system of a poison. But in its popular use this term is restricted to alcoholic intoxication, that is, drunkenness or inebriety, or the mental and physical condition induced by drinking excessive quantities of alcoholic liquors, and this is its meaning as used in statutes, indictments, etc. Sapp v. State, 176 Ga. 782, 42 S.E. 410; State v. Pierce, 65 Iowa 85, 27 N.W. 195; Wadsworth v. Dunnam, 98 Ala 670, 13 So. 599; Ring v. Ring, 112 Ga. 854, 38 S.E. 330; State v. Kelley, 47 Vt. 296, Coin. v. Whitney, 11 Cush., Mass., 477.¹³

The definition of noxious also encompasses alcohol:

NOXIOUS. Hurtful; offensive; offensive to the smell. Rex v. White, 1 Burrows, 337. The word "noxious' includes the complex idea both of insalubrity and offensiveness. Id. That which causes or tends to cause injury, especially to health or morals. Moubray V. G. & M. Improvement Co., 178 App.Div. 737, 165 N.Y.S. 842, 843.¹⁴

Therefore, by definition, alcohol falls under the provisions of Art. 786:

Art. 786. — Control of Toxic Substances and Drugs.

Whosoever, apart from the cases punishable under the Penal Code (Art. 510):

(a) manufactures or prepares, sells, offers for sale, delivers or gives without lawful permission or an express medical prescription, where such are required, substances or products which are narcotic, toxic, poisonous, noxious or dangerous for the health; or

(b) in defiance of rules prescribed by law or the rules dictated by common prudence wilfully sells, offers for sale or delivers such substances or products, even when their delivery is not expressly prohibited without an authorization, to persons who are irresponsible, to infants or young persons, sick persons or individuals for whom they are manifestly dangerous or unsuitable; or

(c) keeps or handles such substances or products without taking the precautions required by official or professional regulations, custom or the dictates of common prudence, in particular when there is a risk of mistake or confusion; or

(d) fails to warn other persons of the danger of poisoning or intoxication known to him, when it is his duty and he is able to do so, is punishable with fine or arrest.¹⁵

 Further controls were described in Art. 788:

Art. 788. — Control of Foodstuffs, Beverages and other Commodities.

Whosoever, apart from the cases punishable under the Penal Code (Art. 511 and 512), contravenes the rules or regulations regarding: 

(a) the permission for the keeping or sale, the transport, preservation, sale and control of foodstuffs, meat, milk, beverages, whether alcoholic or not, commodities and fodder; or 

(b) the opening and closing, running and control of market places, is punishable with the fine or arrest.¹⁶

According to Art. 5(5)(a) of the 1963 Transport (Amendment) Regulations, impaired driving was also illegal: "No person shall drive a vehicle while under the influence of intoxicating drugs or drink."¹⁷

Black's Law Dicitonary provides a definition of the term "under the influence of intoxicating liquor": 

UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF INTOXICATING LIQUOR. Phrase as used in statutes or ordinances prohibiting the operation of motor vehicle by a party under the influence of intoxicating liquor covers not only all well-known and easily recognized conditions and degrees of intoxication, but any abnormal mental or physical condition which is the result of indulging in any degree in intoxicating liquors, and which tends to deprive one of that clearness of intellect and control of himself which he would otherwise possess. Commonwealth v. Long, 731 Pa.Super. 28,198 A. 474,477. Any condition where intoxicating liquor has so far affected the nervous system, brain or muscles of the driver as to impair, to an appreciable degree, his ability to operate his automobile in the manner that an ordinary, prudent and cautious man, in full possession of his faculties, using reasonable care, would operate or drive under like conditions. Luellen v. State, 64 OkLCr 382, 81 P.2d 323, 328.¹⁸

Bars and drinking shops were required to close at midnight as according to Legal Notice No. 79 of 1945.¹⁹

The Amharic version of Legal Notice No. 79 of 1945 was actually mistranslated into English as "12 p.m." whereas it should read "12 a.m." or "midnight."

Black's Law Dictionary defines "drinking shops" as: "A place where intoxicating liquors are sold, bartered, or delivered to be drunk on the premises. Portland v. Schmidt, 13 Or. 17, 6 Pac. 221."²⁰

Further, alcoholism was considered to be a mental disorder by the Emperor.²¹ By law, foreigners who were chronic alcoholics were labeled "undesirable" and were denied entry into Ethiopia: "Refusal of Entry: Any foreigner who has been declared an undesirable foreigner shall not be allowed to enter into Ethiopia."²²

An "undesirable foreigner" was defined as:

Any foreigner, whether resident or non-resident, who is declared to be such by Our Minister of Interior, because said foreigner:

(a) has no visible means of support or is likely to become a public burden;

(b) has been convicted of a crime involving moral turpitude in a foreign country or in Ethiopia;

(c) has been declared a chronic alcoholic;

(d) has been found guilty of disturbing or endangering the Security of the State;

(e) has been found guilty of promoting immorality in Ethiopia

(f) has been found guilty of violating any provision hereof or of any Regulations issued hereunder.²³

Nevertheless the Emperor himself consumed alcohol socially and in moderation.

Such was Merrill's stature that even the Emperor came to dine. Unlike most Ethiopians, he arrived with regal punctuality In such surroundings, His Majesty remained relaxed and his ironic humor flowed. At one of those dinners, I happened to be standing behind him when cocktails were served. When my turn came and I declined a drink, the Emperor turned swiftly around: "Et alors, Monsieur Spencer, vous etes done un missionnaire? [So what, Mr. Spencer, are you a missionary then?]"²⁴

"His Imperial Majesty preferred German white wines from the Rheingau and Rheinhessen and French red wines from Burgundy."²⁵

The Emperor even borrowed money to purchase St. George's Brewery when it was a small company on December 22, 1952 and he eventually donated it to the Haile Selassie I Prize Trust charity organization on June 29, 1972.²⁶ Share dividends and profits from the brewery went to support several charities including St. Paul’s Hospital for the poor, the school for the blind and many other social services.²⁷

Homemade Ethiopian honey wine known as tej has a long history and is inseperable from Ethiopian tradition:

 

Ṭäǧǧ (Amh. ጠጅ, Tgn. ሜስ, mes; Orom. daaḍi is an alcoholic beverage produced by the fermentation of honey and consumed throughout Ethiopia and Eritrea. The use of Ṭäǧǧ in Ethiopia is believed to go back to Aksumite times. Certainly, by the 16th century it was being used to honour warriors, as when aṣe Śärṣä Dɘngɘl let the hero ᶜAqba Mikaᵓel drink Ṭäǧǧ in his presence. In the 19th century, in the northern highlands and in parts of the south, e.g. Wälaytta, the drink was controlled by royalty, who restricted consumption, e.g., to honoured individuals and soldiers. King Ṭona of Wälaytta in the 19th century filled large shields with Ṭäǧǧ for his great warriors to drink from "like lions". Often, only royally designated women were allowed to brew Ṭäǧǧ and to deal with any bee products. Ǝtege Ṭaytu was responsible for circa 50 richly decorated horn containers of highest-quality Ṭäǧǧ, whose carriers had a higher status than those with undecorated or leather containers (Prouty 1986:138). At his gebbi in Ǝnṭoṭṭo Menilek II had a special glassdoor cabinet just for storing Ṭäǧǧ as well as a separate area of the court for making it. Käfa, on the other hand, produced the drink in quantities indicating a wide usage. Cold water and dark raw honey including the comb are heated (1:4 ~ 1:7 v:v). Honey from Goǧǧam and of coffee and mäsqäl blossoms are condiered the best for Ṭäǧǧ. Crushed dry-heated or boiled gešo (twigs and bark; sometimes leaves), circa one-third the weight of the honey, is added a few days later. The new mixture is fermented in a covered container in a dark room, from a few days to a month. Most recipes call for repeated stirring during this time. The floating residue is removed. More honey (or the first honey) may be added. At this point, the Ṭäǧǧ is ready, though fermentation continues without added bitterness up to the bacterial tolerance level. Highest quality Ṭäǧǧ will be aged, traditionally underground, for as long as six to twelve months. Variations are many, including re-crushing the gešo and adding various ingredients to give a different flavour or a special "kick". Thes include, e.g., vernonia, sorghum, maize, wheat, č̣at, fennel, coffee, araqe, but also secret ingredients. For a stronger drink, even poisonous additives such as ǝndod and aṭäfari (Datura stramonium or Cannabis sativa) may be employed. So-called filtered Ṭäǧǧ is a higher quality Ṭäǧǧ with higher quantitites of the essential ingredients and extra honey added before selling. Ṭäǧǧ should be amber-coloured, cloudy and slightly effervescent, with a woody and bitter-sweet taste. Fine Ṭäǧǧ, aged 6–12 months, has been compared to cognac and Bordeaux. A less alcoholic Ṭäǧǧ is made mostly with sugar and aged a week or less. There is also ብርዝ (bǝrz), a minimally fermented honey water, and distilled Ṭäǧǧ. Various yeasts and the lactic acid bacteria present with the gešo and honey convert sugars into alcohol and lactic acid, producing the aroma and flavour. Ṭäǧǧ is mildly acidic (pH ~ 4). The alcohol content ranges from 5% to over 20%. Besides being intoxicating, Ṭäǧǧ has a number of nutritive qualities, including providing calories (1.49 mg/ml – 3.73 mg/ml), B vitamins, some protein (0.33 –4.66 mg/ml), and amino acids and nitric oxide (both desirable for fertility; Bekel Bahiru et al. 2001), and fluids. The most common place to consume Ṭäǧǧ is the ጠጅ ፡ በት (ṭäǧǧ bet, 'Ṭäǧǧ house'). Usually, Ṭäǧǧ bets are inexpensive, function as a social space to apss the time, to pass on information and rumours and to carry out various kinds of disputations. Women are not common clients in urband establishments, though they frequently work in or run them. Especially in the north, azmari will play and sing. IN the countryside, Ṭäǧǧ bet are normally run by local women or men, whereas in Addis Abäba, Gurage and Amhara predominate. Ṭäǧǧ houses have multiplied greatly in Adiss Abäba. The first arose at the end of the 19th century and were run by women brewers. By 1908 circa 50 ṭälla or Ṭäǧǧ sheds were reported, growing to over 1,000 shortly thereafter. A number of these housed prostitutes, giving them a reputation still encountered at times today. These establishments were sanctioned by the government, the taxes on them rumoured to go straight to the imperial treasury. Ṭäǧǧ is served in thick Florence glasses with flared openings (ብርሌ, bǝrǝlle). Raw beef or braised beef or lamb or yam sandwiches are served at many Ṭäǧǧ bets, and qolo or other finger food may be sold. Ṭäǧǧ plays an important role as a drink for special occasions. Thus, it is consumed at festivals, weddings or täzkar, during special meals at home, and in traditional and expensive restaurants. Ṭäǧǧ is also used in the preparation of spices and of food in general. Becuse Ṭäǧǧ is more expensive to make than ṭälla and because of its royal aura, Ṭäǧǧ enjoys respect as the national drink. Nevertheless, attempts at mass marketing have met with little success. The amount of Ṭäǧǧ produced in Ethiopia is unknown, but an estimate of recent annual production, based on 80%–90% of Ethiopian honey being used for Ṭäǧǧ and 23,000 tonnes of honey, would lie between 40–150 million litres.²⁸

By law, De Luxe and Class A hotels were required to stock "a large choice of domestic and imported wines and other alcoholic drinks" in Imperial Ethiopia.²⁹ Alcohol consumption has been a longstanding tradition in Ethiopia, practiced across diverse ethno-cultural groups since ancient times. In general, alcoholic drinking is an integral part for a large majority of Ethiopians within thier social lives and cultures.

The Ethiopian Orthodox Täwaḥǝdo Church and its priests did not officially reject the use of alcohol, in contrast to Islam, and priests join in drinking, but usually the Church has pleaded for moderation in its use.³⁰

In the American itinerary for His Imperial Majesty's visit to the United States from July 7th to the 12th in 1969 it states that "His Imperial Majesty prefers fruit juices, soft drinks and mineral water. Champagne may be served if there are to be toasts. His Imperial Majesty does not drink alcoholic beverages but they may be served wherever desired by the host organization."³¹

It should be noted that in 1969 His Imperial Majesty was seventy-seven years old. Also, July 7th to the 12th that year corresponded to Hamle 3rd to the 8th, 1961, in the Ethiopian calendar. These dates straddle the end of a major religious fasting period for the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church: the Apostles' Fast (Tsome Hawariat), which concludes on Hamle 5 (July 9) after Pentecost. During this fast (one of the church's seven canonical periods) all days involve vegan abstinence. 

After Hamle 5, the post-Pentecost season continues with weekly Wednesday and Friday fasts (known as Hosaena). Therefore, during the Emperor's 1969 visit: July 7 (Monday), 8 (Tuesday), and 9 (Wednesday) were fasting days under the Apostles' Fast; July 11 (Friday) was a weekly fast. On Wednesdays and Fridays (July 9 and 11), lay EOTC members abstained from consuming anything before 3:00 PM solar time (~9:00 AM clock time). No animal products, tobacco, or alcohol were consumed at all on any fasting days as outlined in the Fetha Negast.³² Therefore only two days of the six-day visit, July 10 (Thursday) and July 12 (Saturday), were non-fasting days in which alcohol, tobacco and meat could be consumed.

While His Imperial Majesty occasionally partook in moderate alcohol consumption earlier in life—reflecting Ethiopian cultural norms and his preference for fine wines at court—biographical accounts indicate he abstained more rigorously in later years, influenced by advancing age, health concerns, and deepening Orthodox devotion. At seventy-seven years old during the 1969 visit to the U.S., his personal discipline aligned with the fasting period's prohibitions, underscoring his adherence to canonical moderation rather than trinitarian Rastafarian absolutism.

TOBACCO

Traditional Rastafarians, adhering to a literal interpretation of the Nazarite Vow and the principle that the body is the temple of Jah (1 Corinthians 6:19–20), prohibit tobacco entirely—viewing it as a colonial poison that defiles both body and spirit. This lifelong ban contrasts sharply with Haile Selassie’s Ethiopian Orthodox practice, where tobacco was forbidden only during canonical fasting periods.

Minors under the age of eighteen were prohibited from consuming tobacco products as according to Art. 786 of the Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia 1957.³³

A report published by the World Health Organization in 1975 states:

Additional measures should be considered to secure the rights of the non-smoker:

(a) by prohibiting smoking in hospitals and other health care institutions, except in specially designated areas;

(b) by adopting regulations to protect non-smokers from exposure, without their consent, to tobacco smoke in the working environment;

(c) by the provision or extension of non-smoking areas in public transport and other public places where smoking is not totally prohibited;

(d) by clearly defining non-smoking areas and publicizing prohibitions of smoking so that all users are aware that smoking is prohibited;

(e) by giving special attention to the protection of infants from contact with persons who are smoking.³⁴

Prime Minister Aklilu smoking a pipe in his office. 

Consequently, the Emperor is quoted as saying, "Hence the necessity for every country to enforce international health regulations as prescribed by the World Health Organization."³⁵

Contrary to some recollections, His Imperial Majesty did not personally own a cigarette factory; instead, his 1942 proclamation established a state monopoly on tobacco manufacturing and sales, managed by a government board for national tax revenue.³⁶

The tax prescribed in Article 12 hereof shall not be levied on cigars not exceeding fifty (50) in number cigarettes not exceeding one hundred (100) in number and tobacco not exceeding two hundred and fifty (250) grams, if carried for personal use by a passenger entering Ethiopia.³⁷

Interestingly, there have been a few recorded instances of the Emperor smoking tobacco himself, notably in 1916:

I met Ras Tafari at Helwan in 1916, to which place he had come to be anointed ceremonially by the Coptic Pope, Cyril V. He struck me at the time as being a man of a retiring and shy disposition, wtlh delicately moulded features, and keen, piercing eyes. Through an interpreter, he amazed me by reciting at length the names of the principal Australian rivers, with all the delight of a schoolboy. Incidentally, he and the Pope consumed most of my cigarettes, which bore a brand well-known in Australia.³⁸

Fitawrari Tekle Hawariat Tekle Mariyam wrote that Lij Iyasu visited Dire Dawa in 1916, that he walked into a Roman Catholic Church and began smoking a cigarette during Mass. The action caused a public scandal for the Ethiopian Tewahedo Orthodox Church and afterwards Tekle Hawariat stated that Iyasu was completely unfit for the throne, writing that his deposing was absolutely necessary for the survival of the Empire and for the good of the people.³⁹

So Ras Tafari traveled to Paris, to London—inspected armies, navies, studied governments, examined the centers of education and learning. He had no difficulty in the continent of Europe, for he spoke French fluently, a language that he had learned as a boy in a Jesuit mission. When he returned—it was in 1924 that he made his pilgrimage to the seats of modern civilization—he was a changed and different Ras. What he had seen in other lands made him view anew his own land with a critical eye. And so he, as King of Kings, Lion of Judah, began a new chapter in Ethiopian history—the chapter of Ethiopia's New Deal. He started in with his own royal household. He adopted a pleasant hospitality, a sort of open house to all visiting foreigners. Visitors were served with hot tea and piping hot baking powder biscuits—done to a turn by the expert hand of—an American cook. Next he caused horrified consternation by producing cigarettes and calmly smoking them. His subjects hesitated and then soon followed the new royal custom. The church was furious, but Ras declined to make an issue. He had seen the outside world and the standard of living of its peoples—and ninety-nine per cent of his clerical critics had not. And Ras Tafari ploughed ahead on his new course, content that he was doing right—the right of trying to lift his people from the squalor and backwardness of mediæval times to the bright brilliant cleanliness of electric lights, bathtubs, decent justice and all the rest of the attributes of occidental civilization. At times, he was hampered by the dull, stupid Judith, who was merely a convenient tool for the reactionaries who foresaw in these innovations the eventual doom of their own dominance over the illiterate populace. The official power belonged to the Empress, but the actual power was wielded by the then Prince Regent.⁴⁰

Yet Ethiopia's tobacco production prior to the 19th century appears to be scant:

A servant offering cigars and cigarettes to
guests at the Imperial Palace.

Tobacco (Amh. ትምባሆ tǝmbaho) seems to have been little known in Ethiopia prior to the 19h cent. This was largely on account of misoneistic opposition from the Church, which regarded both smoking and snuffing as 'un-Christian' (cp. also Coffee). This view was reinforced by the fact that both practices were adopted by Muslim merchants in contact with the outside world, as well as by 'animist' people who allegedly used tobacco at their ceremonies. Opposition to tobacco found expression in various traditonal beliefs. Some held that at the Crucifixion the tobacco plant, the 'enemy of Mary', was the sole plant not to wither in shame. Another tradition declared that the plant was 'infamous' because it grew on the grave of the arch-heretic Arius (Borelli 1890:117; Griaule 1928:78). A text of the Dǝrsanä Raguᵓel dating from late-Gondarine times quoted the Archangel as stating that the tobacco plant was 'worse than hyena's flesh', and had been 'poisoned by the Devil'. Ragu'el reportedly prophesied that if aṣe Lɘbnä Dɘngɘl shunned the weed he would defeat Aḥmad b. Ibrāhīm, but otherwise would suffer terrible disaster (Caquot 1957:91–102). Despite such beliefs, tobacco imports, cultivation, smoking and snuffing by the early 19th cent., were widely reported, particularly among Gurage, Oromo and other peoples in the south, less influenced by Orthodox Church teachings. Imported tobacco was on sale at major markets, where snuff was referred to as ሱራት (surat), after the Indian tobacco exporting port of that name (KaneDic 489). Locally-grown leaves were harvested by women, sun-dried, and pressed by being placed under a bed (Pankhurst 1964: 226). Opposition to tobacco was particularly intense during the reign of aṣe Yoḥannɘs IV (r. 1872–89). He decreed that habitual smokers and snuffers should respectively have their lips and noses amputated. These punishments were however rarely realized—and the ban on tobacco scarcely enforceable: the British traveller A.B. Wylde (1901:44f.) reports that the monarch's aide Mɘrč̣a Wärqe once absent-mindedly attempted to take snuff in the presence of the Emperor, who merely said, 'Not before me [..] whatever you do before others'. Commercial tobacco cultivation was meanwhile initiated around Kärän outside the Emperor's control. Restrictions on the use of tobacco were weakened during the reign of Mɘnɘlik II, when abunä Matewos, the Coptic head of the Ethiopian Church, smoked extensively, albeit behind closed doors (Hohler 1942:126). Mɘnɘlik himself adopted a relaxed attitude to tobacco, declaring that addicts should use it discreetly, following the injunction: 'Your vice [i.e. tobacco] under your arms [i.e. in secret] — Your provisions on your donkey [i.e. openly].' Subsequently, in 1910, Mɘnɘlik officially accepted tobacco when he established a monopoly for its production and import, a lucrative enterprise which he entrusted to an Armenian entrepreneur, Matig Kevorkoff (ZerÉth 212f.; Rey 1923: 202).⁴¹

There are also many instances of the Emperor Haile Selassie gifting silver and gold cigarette and cigar cases to various politicians, but at the age of seventy-seven it was recorded that, "His Imperial Majesty does not smoke and does not object to others smoking."⁴²

FIREARMS

Automatic weapons were completely legal in Imperial Ethiopia under Emperor Haile Selassie the First.

Published under the emergency clause of Art. 92 of the Revised Constitution of Ethiopia 1955, Art. 2(b)(i) of the Authority to Issue Orders (Amendment) Decree of 1958 states:

In this Decree, unless the context otherwise requires; "Arms" means any gun, machine-gun, automatic rifle, pistol, revolver or any other instrument from which a projectile can be discharged. 

"Firearm" means a shot-gun or other gun made solely for hunting or target practice.⁴³

Art. 2(b)(iv) states that minors under the age of eighteen are prohibited from possessing firearms:

No person under eighteen years of age may possess arms and it shall constitute a violation of the present Decree for any person to give, sell, lend or part with possession of arms, to any such person under eighteen years of age; provided that if any such person shall acquire any arms through gift or inheritance such arms shall be safeguarded on his behalf by his guardian or administrator until such time as such person shall attain the age of eighteen years.⁴⁴

After World War II, only six towns (Addis Ababa, Harar, Dire Dawa, Jimma, Dessie and Gondar) restricted the carrying of weapons by non-bonafide travelers until Art. 3 of the 1960 Arms Regulations fully rescinded Legal Notice No. 9 of 1942 on March 30, 1960.

Subsequently, every kind of arm was allowed to be carried in any town in Ethiopia by any person over the age of eighteen provided that it was registered as according to Art. 2(b)(vi). However, Art. 15 of the 1960 Arms Regulations held that:

15. No person may carry any arm:

(i) into any place where intoxicating liquors are sold;

(ii) into any public gathering or any place where religious ceremony or festivity is being held; or

(iii) into any hotel, cinema, restaurant or similar place of amusement; provided, however, that the provisions of this Article 15 shall not apply to any person who carries an arm into a hotel in which he is registered as a guest or resident.⁴⁵

The penalty for violating the Authority to Issue Orders (Amendment) Decree of 1958 or the Arms Regulations of 1960 was forfeiture of the arms in question, a fine of $500–$5000 (USD after adjusting for inflation) or imprisonment from one to six months.⁴⁶

Art. 74 of the Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia 1957 provides self-defense provisions:

Art. 74. — Self-Defence.

An act done under the necessity of slef-defence or the defence of another person against an imminent and unlawful assault or a threat of an assault directed against a legally protected belonging shall not be punishable if the assault or threat could not have been otherwise averted and if the defence was proportionate to the nedds of the case, in particular to the danger and gravity of the assault and the importance of the belonging to be defended.⁴⁷

Disproportionate excess in self-defense was allowed under the law:

Art. 75. — Excess in Self-Defence

(1) When a person in repelling an unlawful assault exceeded the limits of self-defence by using disproportionate means or going beyond the acts necessary for averting the danger, the Court shall, without re­striction, reduce the penalty. (Art. 185).

(2) The Court may impose no punishment when the excess committed was due to excusable fear, surprise or excitement caused by the assault.

(3) In the case of acts exceeding strict self-defence he who repelled the assault shall remain civilly liable for the injury caused by his excess.⁴⁸

The Emperor was photographed holding a rifle as young as age thirteen when his father appointed him as the nominal Dejazmatch of Gara Mulata.

He shared with the Emperor a great interest in things mechanical; and often when His Majesty took delivery of a new weapon it was [Bitwoded] Mekonen [Demissew] who was called, and together they would study it, take it to pieces and reassemble it blindfolded.⁴⁹

Restrictions were minimal and violations were considered to be petty offenses:

Art. 475. — Prohibited Traffic in Arms.
(1) Whosoever: 

(a) apart from offences against the security of the State (Art. 254), makes, imports, exports or transports, acquires, receives, stores or hides, offers for sale, puts into circulation or distributes, without special authorisation or contrary to law, weapons or munitions of any kind; or 

(b) without indulging in trafficking, knowingly sells, delivers or hands over arms to suspect or dangerous persons, is punishable with simple imprisonment, without prejudice to the imposition of a fine, where he has acted for gain or has made a profession of such activities, and to confiscation of material seized.

(2) Occasional violations of police regulations, and the carrying or use of prohibited weapons, are subject to the penalties for petty offences (Art. 763 and 764).⁵⁰

Art. 763 states:

Art. 763. — Control of Arms and Ammunition.

Whosoever, apart from the cases of traffic punishable under the Penal Code (Art. 475):

(a) contravenes the rules and regulations concerning the making and declaration, the trade in, possession or delivery, control or use of firearms or other weapons, and ammunition; or

(b) knowingly sells or delivers to persons not entitled to receive them, and in particular to infants or young persons, arms or ammunition or allows them to dispose of them without supervision, is punishable with fine or arrest.⁵¹

Art. 764 reads:

Art. 764. — Carrying and Use of Prohibited Arms.

Whosoever is found carrying in a public place an arm which he was not authorized to acquire or entitled to carry, or makes use of an arm, even though authorized, at a time when or in a place where such use is prohibited, is punishable with fine not exceeding one hundred dollars or arrest not exceeding eight days.⁵²

Explosives were also legal in Imperial Ethiopia provided that a small local inexpensive permit was acquired first.⁵³

__________________________

Notes

1. Holy Bible, King James Version, Numbers 6:1–4.

2. Arts. 773, 786, Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia, 1957, Proclamation No. 158, Negarit Gazeta, year 16, no. 1, pp. 228–229, 232.

3. Arts. 167, 181, Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia, 1957, Proclamation No. 158, Negarit Gazeta, year 16, no. 1, pp. 52–53, 56.

4. An Anthology of Some of the Public Utterances of His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I, Press and Information Department, Addis Ababa, 1949, pp. 63–64; An alternate translation of the speech reads: "The building of this stadium calls the youth of Ethiopia to turn away from all substances that harm the body or limit the intellect, and to care for their health with a clear mind and a clean body. This is their sacred duty. [...] We love sport and We want to help Our country to gain a good reputation in this field. Therefore, it is indispensable to know that this can only be achieved by abstaining from alcohol and similar things, as well as by avoiding bad behaviour and substances which affect the consciousness." Bromber, Katrin. "The Stadium and the City: Sports Infrastructure in Late Imperial Ethiopia and Beyond," Cadernos de Estudos Africanos, no. 32, 2016, pp. 61–62. Centro de Estudos Internacionais, doi:10.4000/cea.2098. www.journals.openedition.org/cea/pdf/2098. Accessed 31 October 2025.

5. Art. 773, Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia, 1957, Proclamation No. 158, Negarit Gazeta, year 16, no. 1, pp. 228–229.

6. Art. 774, Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia, 1957, Proclamation No. 158, Negarit Gazeta, year 16, no. 1, p. 229.

7. Lowenstein, Steven. Materials for the Study of the Penal Law of Ethiopia, Faculty of Law Haile Sellassie I University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 1965, p. 4; Berhane, Yohannes. Delict and Torts: An Introduction to the Sources of the Law of Civil Wrongs in Contemporary Ethiopia (Arts. 2027-2061 of the Ethiopian Civil Code of 1960), II Poligrafico P.L.C., Asmara, 1969, pp. title page, 287.

8. Black, Henry Campbell. Black's Law Dictionary, 4th ed., West Publishing Ca, St. Paul Minn., 1951, p. 93.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid.

11. Ibid., p. 957.

12. Ibid.

13. Ibid.

14. Ibid.,  p.1214.

15. Art. 786, Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia, 1957, Proclamation No. 158, Negarit Gazeta, year 16, no. 1, p. 232.

16. Art. 788, Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia, 1957, Proclamation No. 158, Negarit Gazeta, year 16, no. 1, p. 233.

17. Consolidated Laws of Ethiopia: An Unofficial Compilation of National Laws in Effect as of September 10, 1969, vol. 2, Faculty of Law, Haile Sellassie I University, 1972, p. 672.

18. Black, Henry Campbell. Black's Law Dictionary, 4th ed., West Publishing Ca, St. Paul Minn., 1951, p.1695.

19. Art. 1, Hours for Closing of Amusement Places Proclamation Order, 1945, Legal Notice No. 79, Negarit Gazeta, year 4, no. 10, p. 77.

20. Black, Henry Campbell. Black's Law Dictionary, 4th ed., West Publishing Ca, St. Paul Minn., 1951, p. 585.

21. International Classification of Diseases: Manual of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death, 8th ed., vol. 2, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1967, p. 149.

22. Art. 8, Proclamation regulating the issuance of Travel Documents and Visas, and Registration of foreigners in Ethiopia, 1969, Proclamation No. 271, Negarit Gazeta, year 26, no. 25, p. 209.

23. Art. 3(11), Proclamation regulating the issuance of Travel Documents and Visas, and Registration of foreigners in Ethiopia, 1969, Proclamation No. 271, Negarit Gazeta, year 26, no. 25, pp. 206–207.

24. Spencer, John H. Ethiopia at Bay, Reference Publications Inc., Michigan, 1987, p. 169.

25. Book Presentation Anglo-Ethiopian Society – (Work and Life at the Court of Haile Selassie I. Lore Trenkler: Memoirs 1960-1975). Austrian Cultural Forum London, 7 Dec. 2011, www.acflondon.org/events/book-presentation-anglo-ethiopian-society-work-and/. Accessed 31 October 2025.

26. Ambatchew, Abebe. A Glimpse of Greatness Emperor Haile Selassie I: The Person, Trafford Publishing, Canada, 2010, pp. 38–41.

27. Ibid.; Deguefé, Taffara. Minutes of an Ethiopian Century, Shama Books, Addis Ababa, 2006, pp. 405–406.

28. Dammers, Kim. "Ṭäǧǧ." Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, edited by Siegbert Uhlig, vol. 4, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany, 2010, pp. 817–818.

29. Arts. 5(4), 6(4), Ethiopian Tourist Organization Regulations, Legal Notice No. 371, 1969, Negarit Gazeta, year 28, no. 24, pp. 196, 198.

30. Abbink, Jon G. "Drinks." Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, edited by Siegbert Uhlig, vol. 2, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, Germany, 2005, p. 199.

31. State Visit to the United States of America of His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I Emperor of Ethiopia July 7–12, 1969, Department of State, Washington D.C., 1969, p. 2.

32. Yesehaq, Archbishop. The Ethiopian Tewahedo Church: An Integrally African Church, Vantage Press, Inc., New York, 1989, pp. 133–135; Tzadua, Abba Paulos, translator. Fetha Nagast: The Law of the Kings. Edited by Peter L. Strauss, Faculty of Law Haile Sellassie I University, 1968. 2nd printing, Carolina Academic Press, 2009, pp. 93–97.

33. Art. 786, Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia, 1957, Proclamation No. 158, Negarit Gazeta, year 16, no. 1, p. 232.

34. Smoking and its Effects on Health: Report of WHO Expert Committee, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1975, p. 32.

35. Speeches delivered by His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie 1st Emperor of Ethiopia on various occasions May 1957–December 1959, Ministry of Information, Addis Ababa, 1960, p. 48.

36. Tobacco Regie Proclamation, 1942, Proclamation No. 30, Negarit Gazeta, year 2, no. 2S, pp. 13–16.

37. Art. 2(d), Tobacco Reggie (Amendment) Decree, 1959, Decree No. 37, Negarit Gazeta, year 19, no. 1, pp. 2–3.

38. F.TK. "ABYSSINIA: the Emperor's Coronation." The Sydney Morning Herald, Saturday, 1 November 1930, p. 9. www.trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/16727130. Accessed 31 October 2025.

39. "Lij Iyasu," Wikipedia: The Free Encyclopedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 31 Oct. 2025, www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lij_Iyasu. Accessed 31 Oct. 2025.

40. Carter, Boake. Black Shirt Black Skin, Harrisburg, Telegraph Press, 1935, pp. 47-48.

41. Pankhurst, Richard. "Tobacco." Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, edited by Siegbert Uhlig, vol. 4, Harrassowitz Verlag Wiesbaden, Germany, 2010, p. 967.

42. State Visit to the United States of America of His Imperial Majesty Haile Selassie I Emperor of Ethiopia July 7–12, 1969, Department of State, Washington D.C., 1969, p. 2.

43. Art. 2(b)(i), Authority to Issue Orders (Amendment) Decree, 1958, Decree No. 31, Negarit Gazeta, year 18, no. 1, p. 1.

44. Art. 2(b)(iv), Authority to Issue Orders (Amendment) Decree, 1958, Decree No. 31, Negarit Gazeta, year 18, no. 1, p. 2.

45. Consolidated Laws of Ethiopia: An Unofficial Compilation of National Laws in Effect as of September 10, 1969, vol. 1, Faculty of Law, Haile Sellassie I University, 1972, p. 306.

46. Arts. 2(b)(vii)(b), 3; Authority to Issue Orders (Amendment) Decree, 1958, Decree No. 31, Negarit Gazeta, year 18, no. 1, p. 3.

47. Art. 74, Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia, 1957, Proclamation No. 158, Negarit Gazeta, year 16, no. 1, pp. 23.

48. Art. 75, Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia, 1957, Proclamation No. 158, Negarit Gazeta, year 16, no. 1, pp. 23.

49. Burgogne, Clarissa. "The Incorruptible Ethiopian." Proceedings of the Third International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, Institute of Ethiopian Studies Haile Selassie I University, Addis Ababa, 1966, p. 316.

50. Art. 475, Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia, 1957, Proclamation No. 158, Negarit Gazeta, year 16, no. 1, p. 145.

51. Art. 763, Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia, 1957, Proclamation No. 158, Negarit Gazeta, year 16, no. 1, p. 226.

52. Art. 764, Penal Code of the Empire of Ethiopia, 1957, Proclamation No. 158, Negarit Gazeta, year 16, no. 1, p. 227.

53. Arts. 1–4, Explosives Proclamation, 1942, Proclamation No. 19, year 1, no. 5, pp. 48–49.

About the Author

His Eminence Liqa Wambar Petar Vukotic is the Archbishop of the Zufan Chilot Church and the Secretary for the Global Alliance of Justice for the Ethiopian Cause (GAJEC), he's a member of the International Society for the Imperial Ethiopian Orders and is the world's leading authority for interpreting Imperial Ethiopian case law. He's also Moa Anbessa's Imperial Ethiopian Constitutional Law Expert.